Microorganism which can be used as probiotics include

However, a large fraction of dominant phylotypes is subject specific. Also, studies have found that mucosal microbiota is stable along the distal gastrointestinal tract from ileum to rectum, but mucosa-associated microbiota is different from fecal microbiota.

The intestinal microbiota is not homogeneous. The number of bacterial cells present in the mammalian gut shows a continuum that goes from 10 1 to 10 3 bacteria per gram of contents in the stomach and duodenum, progressing to 10 4 to 10 7 bacteria per gram in the jejunum and ileum and culminating in 10 11 to 10 12 cells per gram in the colon Figure 3a.

Additionally, the microbial composition varies between these sites. In addition to the longitudinal heterogeneity displayed by the intestinal microbiota, there is also a great deal of latitudinal variation in the microbiota composition Figure 3b.

The intestinal epithelium is separated from the lumen by a thick and physicochemically complex mucus layer. The microbiota present in the intestinal lumen differs significantly from the microbiota attached and embedded in this mucus layer as well as the microbiota present in the immediate. Spatial and temporal aspects of intestinal microbiota composition. For instance, Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium, Streptococcus , members of Enterobacteriacea, Enterococcus, Clostridium, Lactobacillus , and Ruminococcus were all found in feces, whereas only Clostridium, Lactobacillus , and Enterococcus were detected in the mucus layer and epithelial crypts of the small intestine Sekirov et al.

Colonization of the human gut with microbes begins immediately at birth Figure 3c. Upon passage through the birth canal, infants are exposed to a complex microbial population.

After the initial establishment of the intestinal microbiota and during the first year of life, the microbial composition of the mammalian intestine is relatively simple and varies widely between different individuals and also with time. However, after one year of age, the intestinal microbiota of children starts to resemble that of a young adult and stabilizes Figure 3c Sekirov et al.

The intestinal epithelium is the largest mucosal surface in the human body, provides an interface between the external environment and the host.

The gut epithelium is constantly exposed to foreign microbes and antigens derived from digested foods. Thus, the gut epithelium acts as a physical barrier against microbial invaders and is equipped with various elements of the innate defense system. In the gut, two key elements govern the interplay between environmental triggers and the host: intestinal permeability and intestinal mucosal defense. Resident bacteria can interact with pathogenic microorganisms and external antigens to protect the gut using various strategies.

A variety of traits are believed to be relevant for surviving GI tract passage, the most important of which is tolerance both to the highly acidic conditions present in the stomach and to concentrations of bile salts found in the small intestine. These properties have consequently become important selection criteria for new probiotic functionality. Moreover, As enteropathogenic Escherichia coli are known to bind to epithelial cells via mannose receptors, probiotic strains with similar adherence capabilities could inhibit pathogen attachment and colonization at these binding sites and thereby protect the host against infection Marco et al.

Probiotic bacteria can antagonize pathogenic bacteria by reducing luminal pH, inhibiting bacterial adherence and translocation, or producing antibacterial substances and defensins. Probiotic bacteria decrease the luminal pH, as has been demonstrated in patients with ulcerative colitis UC following ingestion of the probiotic preparation VSL 3. In a fatal mouse Shiga toxin-producing E. This pH reduction was associated with increased animal survival Ng et al. Several bacteriocins produced by different species from the genus Lactobacillus have been described.

The inhibitory activity of these bacteriocins varies; some inhibit taxonomically related Gram-positive bacteria, and some are active against a much wider range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria as well as yeasts and molds. For example, the probiotic L. A further example is the antimicrobial effect of Lactobacillus species on Helicobacter pylori infection of gastric mucosa, achieved by the release of bacteriocins and the ability to decrease adherence of this pathogen to epithelial cells Gotteland et al.

Probiotics can reduce the epithelial injury that follows exposure to E. The pretreatment of intestinal T84 cells with lactic acid-producing bacteria reduced the ability of pathogenic E. Adhesion and invasion of an intestinal epithelial cell line Intestine by adherent invasive E. Most mucosal surfaces are covered by a hydrated gel formed by mucins. Mucins are secreted by specialized epithelial cells, such as gastric foveolar mucous cells and intestinal goblet cells, Goblet cells are found along the entire length of the intestinal tract, as well as other mucosal surfaces.

Of the 18 mucin-type glycoproteins expressed by humans, MUC2 is the predominant glycoprotein found in the small and large bowel mucus. Although small molecules pass through the heavily glycosylated mucus layer with relative ease, bulk fluid flow is limited and thereby contributes to the development of an unstirred layer of fluid at the epithelial cell surface. As the unstirred layer is protected from convective mixing forces, the diffusion of ions and small solutes is slowed Turner, This gel layer provides protection by shielding the epithelium from potentially harmful antigens and molecules including bacteria from directly contacting the epithelial cell layer, while acting as a lubricant for intestinal motility.

Probiotics may promote mucus secretion as one mechanism to improve barrier function and exclusion of pathogens. In support of this concept, probiotics have been shown to increase mucin expression in vitro, contributing to barrier function and exclusion of pathogens. However, this protective effect was dependent on probiotic adhesion to the cell monolayers, which likely does not occur in vivo Mack et al.

Conversely, another study showed that L. Additionally, intestinal trefoil factor 3 TFF3 is coexpressed with MUC2 by colonic goblet cells and is suggested to promote wound repair Gaudier et al.

The composition of the commensal gut microbiota is probably influenced by the combination of food practices and other factors like the geographical localization, various levels of hygiene or various climates. The host-microbe interaction is of primary importance during neonatal period. The establishment of a normal microbiota provides the most substantial antigenic challenge to the immune system, thus helping the gut associated lymphoid tissus GALT maturation.

The intestinal microbiota contributes to the anti-inflammatory character of the intestinal immune system. Several immunoregulatory mechanisms, including regulatory cells, cytokines, apoptosis among others, participate in the control of immune responses by preventing the pathological processes associated with excessive reactivity. An interesting premise for probiotic physiological action is their capacity to modulate the immune system.

Consequently, many studies have focused on the effects of probiotics on diverse aspects of the immune response. Following consumption of probiotic products, the interaction of these bacteria with intestinal enterocytes initiates a host response, since intestinal cells produce various immunomodulatory molecules when stimulated by bacteria Delcenseri et al.

Furthermore, The indigenous microbiota is a natural resistance factor against potential pathogenic microorganisms and provides colonization resistance, also known as gut barrier, by controlling the growth of opportunistic microorganisms.

It has been suggested that commensal bacteria protect their host against microbial pathogens by interfering with their adhesion and toxic effects Myllyluoma, The tight epithelial cell barrier forms the another line of defence between the gut luminal contents and the host.

Epithelial cells lining the gastrointestinal tract are able to respond to infection by initiating either nonspecific or specific host-defence response Kagnoff and Eckmann , Strober Bacterial adhesion to the host cell or recognition by the host cell is often an essential first stage in the disease process. A wide range of gastrointestinal cell surface constituents, such as several glygoconjucates, can serve as receptors for bacterial adherence Servin and Coconnier , Pretzer et al.

These are a family of transmembrane receptors that recognize repetitive patterns, i. TLRs are also found on innate immune cells, such as dendritic cells and macrophages Vinderola et al. TLR4 recognizes lipopolysaccharide and gram-negative bacteria, while TLR2 recognizes a variety of microbial components, such as peptidoglycan and lipoteichoic acids, from gram-positive bacteria Abreu , Matsuguchi et al.

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Recent Pat. Kaur B. Benmechernene Z. Technological aptitude and applications of Leuconostoc mesenteroides bioactive strains isolated from algerian raw camel milk. Ratna Sudha M. Benson K. This article explains whether you should keep probiotics in the fridge or leave them…. Probiotics are living organisms that may offer health benefits. This article explores if you should take probiotics during pregnancy and if it's safe…. Prebiotics are types of fiber that feed your friendly gut bacteria, leading to all sorts of benefits.

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Benefits Common probiotics How to start What are probiotics? You may already be consuming some of these good bacteria if you eat fermented products, such as: yogurt some cheeses some pickled vegetables The concept of consuming more good microbes to aid health has been discussed since the early s.

Why are probiotics beneficial? What are the most common probiotics? Adding probiotics to your diet. Read this next. How to Use the Probiotic Bifidobacterium Infantis.